Canibais e Reis

Foto: "Índio Sioux jejuando". Curtis (1907).

Mais abaixo, a bibliografia do artigo THE LEANGAINS APPROACH, do treinador e atleta Martin Berkhan, artigo esse que já tive oportunidade de comentar aqui.  Eu gostei bastante deste artigo, achei-o muito interessante, e naturalmente agora espera-se que o livro que este treinador/pesquisador está a concluir, em colaboração com Lyle McDonald, esteja ao mesmo nível. Destes artigos citados por Berkhan há três deles que me chamaram especial atenção, a saber:

Halberg N, Henriksen M, Söderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T, Schjerling P, Dela F. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol. 2005 Dec;99(6):2128-36. Epub 2005 Jul 28. (pdf)

Johnson JB, Laub DR, John S. The effect on health of alternate day calorie restriction: eating less and more than needed on alternate days prolongs life. Med Hypotheses. 2006;67(2):209-11. Epub 2006 Mar 10. (pdf)

Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH, Dixit VD, Pearson M, Nassar M, Telljohann R, Maudsley S, Carlson O, John S, Laub DR, Mattson MP. Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007 Mar 1;42(5):665-74. Epub 2006 Dec 14. (pdf)

Naturalmente que a hipótese aqui em teste é a de que será possível emular, através do jejum intermitente e do treino/exercício, ainda que de forma apenas parcial e não tão marcada, as oscilações de disponibilidades energéticas (ciclos de enchimento/depleção de glicogénio muscular/hepático) que os nossos antecessores paleolíticos teriam nos períodos de fome e fartura. A este respeito veja-se o artigo muito esclarecedor "Eating, Exercise and thrifty genotypes" (este artigo é mesmo obrigatório), bem como os demais artigos de Booth e Chakravarty sobre exercício evolucinário.

Isto tudo agora começa a bater certo e fazer muito sentido, não é? Embora existam pouquíssimos estudos a este respeito, naturalmente que existe um importantíssimo paradigma aqui subjacente, que a meu ver se sobrepõe à própria ciência (não) disponível: o paradigma evolucionário da actividade física.

Bibliografia:

- Benefits of intermittent fasting:
Halberg N, Henriksen M, Söderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T, Schjerling P, Dela F. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol. 2005 Dec;99(6):2128-36. Epub 2005 Jul 28. (pdf)
Martin B, Mattson MP, Maudsley S. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting: two potential diets for successful brain aging. Ageing Res Rev. 2006 Aug;5(3):332-53. Epub 2006 Aug 8. (pdf)
Mattson MP, Wan R. Beneficial effects of intermittent fasting and caloric restriction on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. J Nutr Biochem. 2005 Mar;16(3):129-37.
Varady KA, Hellerstein MK. Alternate-day fasting and chronic disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Jul;86(1):7-13. (pdf)
McCarty MF, Falahati-Nini A. Neuroprotective potential of the Bahadori leanness program: a "minifast with exercise" strategy. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68(5):935-40. Epub 2006 Dec 13.
Anson RM, Guo Z, de Cabo R, Iyun T, Rios M, Hagepanos A, Ingram DK, Lane MA, Mattson MP. Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 May 13;100(10):6216-20. Epub 2003 Apr 30. (pdf)
Johnson JB, Laub DR, John S. The effect on health of alternate day calorie restriction: eating less and more than needed on alternate days prolongs life. Med Hypotheses. 2006;67(2):209-11. Epub 2006 Mar 10. (pdf)
Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH, Dixit VD, Pearson M, Nassar M, Telljohann R, Maudsley S, Carlson O, John S, Laub DR, Mattson MP. Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007 Mar 1;42(5):665-74. Epub 2006 Dec 14. (pdf)
Meal frequency Verboeket-van de Venne WP, Westerterp KR, Kester AD. Effect of the pattern of food intake on human energy metabolism. Br J Nutr. 1993 Jul;70(1):103-15
Bellisle F. Impact of the daily meal pattern on energy balance. Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition, Volume 48, Number 3, October 2004, pp. 114-118(5)
Taylor MA, Garrow JS. Compared with nibbling, neither gorging nor a morning fast affect short-term energy balance in obese patients ina chamber calorimeter. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001 Apr;25(4):519-28.
Bellisle F. Impact of the daily meal pattern on energy balance. Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition, Volume 48, Number 3, October 2004, pp. 114-118(5)
Bellisle F et al. Meal frequency and energy balance. Br J Nutr. 1997 Apr;77 Suppl 1:S57-70. (pdf)
Jones PJ et al. Meal frequency influences circulating hormone levels but not lipogenesis rates in humans. Metabolism. 1995 Feb;44(2):218-23.
Westerterp KR et al. Influence of the feeding frequency on nutrient utilization in man: consequences for energy metabolism. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1991 Mar;45(3):161-9

- Fasting and metabolic rate:

Zauner C, Schneeweiss B, Kranz A, Madl C, Ratheiser K, Kramer L, Roth E, Schneider B, Lenz K. Resting energy expenditure in short-term starvation is increased as a result of an increase in serum norepinephrine. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Jun;71(6):1511-5.

Webber J, Macdonald IA. The cardiovascular, metabolic and hormonal changes accompanying acute
starvation in men and women. British journal of nutrition 1994; 71:437-447.

- Protein absorption:

Boirie, Y. et. al. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (1997) 94: 14930-14935.
Capaldo, B et. al. Splanchnic and leg substrate exchange after ingestion of a natural mixed meal in humans. Diabetes (1999) 48: 958-966.

- Anticatabolic mechanisms of fasting

Nørrelund H, Nair KS, Jørgensen JO, Christiansen JS, Møller N.Diabetes. The protein-retaining effects of growth hormone during fasting involve inhibition of muscle-protein breakdown. 2001
Jan;50(1):96-104. (pdf)
Larsen AE, Tunstall RJ, Carey KA, Nicholas G, Kambadur R, Crowe TC, Cameron-Smith D. Actions of
short-term fasting on human skeletal muscle myogenic and atrogenic gene expression. Ann Nutr
Metab. 2006;50(5):476-81. Epub 2006 Aug 24.